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Calling : A divinely apointed work, not a mere means for making a living. Business : Work on buying and selling, commerce and trade. Employment : One's regular work or occupation centering around employment relationship of employer and employee. Job : Piece of work, either to be done, or completed. This word may not be considered employment relationship as Employment. Occupation : Work which occupies one's time, either permanently or momentary. Position : Job or employment which one works in one's place or rank in relation to others in occupation. Profession : Occupation, especially one requiring advanced education and special training such as the law, medicine, etc. Pursuit : Work to which one devotes oneself, or to which one gives one's time. Trade : Work on exchanging of goods for money or other goods, and occupation of making a living, expecially a handicraft such as weaver, mason, carpenter and tailor, etc. Vocation : One's trade or occupation that one feels special attitude about qualified work. An antonym of avocation, occupation that is not a one's ordinarary work.
Work
: Use of bodily or mental powers with the purpose of doing or making something, especially contrasted with play or recreation, and activity that one does to earn a living or activity to be done, not necessarily connected with a trade or occupation, not necessarily for payment.
Achieved Status: A status that individuals secure on the basis of choice and competition. -- From James W. Vander Zanden, 1990. Sociology the Core. McGrew-hill. Affirmative Action: The term affermative action has been used in the United States since the late 1960s to refer to policies that go beyond the simple prohibition of discrimination on grounds of race, national origin, and sex in employment practices and educational programs.these policies require some further action, "affirmative action", to make jobs and promotions and admissions to educational program available to individuals from groups that have historically suffered from discrimination in gaining these opportunities or are , whether discriminated against or not by formal policies and informal practices, frequently found in certain occupations or educationsl institutions and programs.-- From Nathan Glazer, 1992. Encyclopedia of Sociology, edited by Borgatta, E. , and Borgatta, M. Macmillen. Aliention: A state of existence in which human beings are not fulfilling their 'humanness'. They are living at a 'lower level' than they potentially might, as a result of their circumstance. Following Marx and Tonnies (thus treating alienation as a sociological concept) and defined in a sentence, alienation is those social structural - social processual forces that accentuate and create "the false separation of individual and society" or do not promote the dialectical interrelation of individual and society. Altruism: Altruism is the narrowest of the three concepts. Atruism is behavior that not only provides benefits to its recipient but also provides no benefits to the actor and even incurs some costs. Thus , atruism expresses internal motivation to benefit another. -- From Judth A. Howard, 1992. Encyclopedia of Sociology, edited by Borgatta, E. , and Borgatta, M. Macmillen. American Sociological Association(ASA): In 1905, the American Sociological Society was formed by some forty to fifty specialist of sociology whose purpose was the encouragement of sociological research and discussion, and the promotion of intercourse between persons engaged in the scientific study of society. The society also elected its first president , Lester F. Ward. Since it was formed, the American Sociological Society was changed a name to the American Sociological Association(ASA) in 1959.-- From Lawrence J. Rhoades, 1981. A History of the American Sociological Association: 1905-1980. Washingtonm, D. C.: American Sociological Association. Anomie: A condition characterized by the absence or confusion of social norms or values in a society or group. Durkeim used the French word anomie, meaning "without norm", to describe the distribution that societies experienced in the shift from an argrarian, village economy to one based on industry. According to Martindale, anomie is the "strict counterpart of the idea of social solidarity. Just as social solidarity is a state of collective ideological integration, anomie is a state of confusion, insecurity, 'normalness'. The collective representations are in a state of decay." -- From Don Martindale, 1960. The Nature and Types of Sociological Theory. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co. Ascibed Status: A status assigned to an individual by a group or society. -- From James W. Vander Zanden, 1990. Sociology the Core. McGrew-hill. Attitudes: An attitude is a learned predisposition to respond to a particular object in a generally favorable or unfavorable way. Every attitude is about an object, and the object may be a person, product, idea, or event. Each attitude has three components: (1) a belief, (2) a favorable or unfavorable evaluation, and (3) a behavioral disposition. Authority: The legitimate right to direct the behavior of subordinates. In the organzation, this right is embedded in the hierarchical organization of roles. Automation: The application of machinery which is controlled and coordinated by computerised programmers to task previously done by direct human effort. Asymmetric tie:
A relation whose form, content, or both is defferent
for the linked actors. Symmetric tie is a relation whose form and/or content
is the same for the linked actors. -- From Emirbayer, Mustafa and Jeff
Goodwin, 1994, Network Analysis, Culture, and the Problem of Agency, American
Journal of Sociology 99 (6):1411-54.
Behaviorism: Behaviorism is the conceptual framework underlying the science of behavior. Within the social sciences, the term has referred to social-learning perspective that emphasizes the importance of rewards and sanctions in regulating individual behavior. Modern behaviorism, however, emphasizes the the analysis of conditions that maintain and change behavior as well as the factors that influence the acquisition or learning of behavior. -- From W. David Pierce, 1992. Encyclopedia of Sociology, edited by Borgatta, E. , and Borgatta, M. Macmillen Block: A set of structurally equivalent actors in a multiplex network. -- From Emirbayer, Mustafa and Jeff Goodwin, 1994, Network Analysis, Culture, and the Problem of Agency, American Journal of Sociology 99 (6):1411-54. Blockmodeling: A technique for finding or "partitioning" (and graphically representing) structurally equivalent actors(or blocks) in a network. -- From Emirbayer, Mustafa and Jeff Goodwin, 1994, Network Analysis, Culture, and the Problem of Agency, American Journal of Sociology 99 (6):1411-54. Boundary Problem: The problem of defining the population of actors to be studied through network analysis in a way which does not depend on a priori categories; in other words, the problem of delimiting the study of social networks which in reality may have no limit. -- From Emirbayer, Mustafa and Jeff Goodwin, 1994, Network Analysis, Culture, and the Problem of Agency, American Journal of Sociology 99 (6):1411-54. Bourgeoisie: The owners of the means of production and distribution in capitalist societies. Marx saw the bourgeoisie as the class in control of capitalist society largely through the oppression of the working-class. For Marx, the bourgeoisie must be overthrown by the working-class if a socialist society is to be established. Marx also distinguished between the bourgeoisie - large scale capitalists (i.e., financiers, large industrialists, large landowners) and the petty bourgeoisie (i.e., small shopkeepers) . Bureaucracy: the origin of the term bureaucracy can be traced to 18 century French literature(Albrow, 1970). In this early usage, the term referred to the workplace of officials whose activities were routinely determined by fairly explicit rules and regulationsIn contradistinction to other forms of administration, modern bureaucracies represent highly formalized and intensely rational systems of administration. The emergence of the study of bureaucracy as a major and independent line of sociological inquiry is fundamentally based upon the work of Max Weber.-- From Cavid G. Nickinovich, 1992. Encyclopedia of Sociology, edited by Borgatta, E. , and Borgatta, M. Macmillen Bureaucratization:
The process by which formal social organizations
take on the characteristics of a bureaucracy. Central to this process is
the formalization, standardization, and impersonalization of rules, regulations
(laws), and hierarchy. As Weber has pointed out, this type of social organization
is especially useful to the money economy and nationality of the modern
age. Bureaucratic social organization typifies modern industrial corporations,
governments, labor unions, and educational, health, and military organizations.
Caste: The term "caste" is often to denote large-scale kinship groups that are hierachically organized within a rigid system of stratification. In such a system a person's socail position is determined by birth, and marital connection outside one's caste is prohibited. Caste systems are to be found among the Hindus in India and among societies where groups are ranked and closedEarly Hindu literary classics describe a society divided into four varnas: Brahman(post-priest), Kshatriya(warrior-chief), Vaisha(traders), and Shudras(menials, servants).-- From Rita Jalali, 1992. Encyclopedia of Sociology, edited by Borgatta, E. , and Borgatta, M. Macmillen Catnet: A social cohesive set of structurally equivalent actors hypothesized as more able and likely to share ideas or a common culture and to engage in collective action than other sorts of real or latent group. -- From Emirbayer, Mustafa and Jeff Goodwin, 1994, Network Analysis, Culture, and the Problem of Agency, American Journal of Sociology 99 (6):1411-54. Census: A sensus is a procedure for establishing the size and characteristics of a total population by attempting to count each of the individuals in the population. Class: A large category or group of people within a system of social stratification who have a similar socioeconomic status in relation to other socioeconomic segments of the society or community. A social class is not necessarily organized (but may become so, as in the case of the Marxian working-class), but the individuals who compose it are relatively similar in political, economic, educational, occupational, and prestige status. Those who are part of the same social class have similar life-chances. Max Weber has defined class in this manner, i.e., in terms of the expectations in life that an individual may have. One's class position yields certain probabilities (or life-chances) as to the fate one may expect in society. Of course, the Marxian definition of social class is in terms of a class's objective position or relation to the means of production in society - thus, not being explicitly concerned with other sociological criteria like occupational status, income, etc. Class Conflict: The view of Karl Marx that society is divided into those who own the means of producing wealth and those who do not, giving rise to struggles between classes. -- From James W. Vander Zanden, 1990. Sociology the Core. McGrew-hill. Clique: A group of actors in which each is directly and strongly linked to all of the others. -- From Emirbayer, Mustafa and Jeff Goodwin, 1994, Network Analysis, Culture, and the Problem of Agency, American Journal of Sociology 99 (6):1411-54. Coalition: Originally a word for union or fusion, the term coalition came in the 18 century to mean a temporary alliance of political parties. In modern social science, the meaning has broadened to include any combination of two or more social actors formed for mutual advantage in contention with other actors in the same social system. Georg Simmel(1858-1918) had the fundamental insight that conflict and cooperation are opposite sides if the same coin so that no functioning social system can be free of internal conflicts or of internal coalitions. -- From Judth A. Howard, 1992. Encyclopedia of Sociology, edited by Borgatta, E. , and Borgatta, M. Macmillen Collective Representations: From Emile Durkheim's sociology. It refers to a symbol having common-shared meaning (intellectual and emotional) to members of a social group or society. Collective representations are first and foremost, historical - that is, they reflect the history of a social group; the collective experiences of a group over time. Collective representations refer not only to symbols in the form of objects (such as the American flag), but also to the basic concepts that determine the way in which an individual views and relates to the world in which he lives. God is a collective representation, as are time and space, for example. The particular function that collective representations serve for society or social groups in expressing the collective sentiments or ideas that give the social group or society its unity and uniqueness is that of producing social cohesion or social solidarity. This is not surprising, for one of the central concerns of Durkheim's functional sociology was social solidarity or social order. Complex Organizations: A simple definition is that organizations are goal-directed, boundary-maintanining, socially constructed systems of hunman activity. Some definitions add other criteria such as deliberateness of design, existence of status structure, patterned understandings between paticipants, orientataion to an environment, possession of a technical system for accomplishing tasks, and substitutability of personnel. Conflict Theory: Conflict theory explains social structure and changes in it by arguing that actors pursue their interests in conflict with others and according to their resources social organization. Conflict theory builds upon Marxist analysis of class conflicts, but it is detached from ant ideological commitment to socialism. Max Weber generalized conflict to the arenas of power and status as well as economic class, and this multimentional approach has become widespread since the 1950s. Dahrendorf proposed that conflicts are based on power, dividing order-givers, who have an interest in maintaining the status quo, from order-taker, who have an interests in changing it. Coser, elaborating the theory of Georg Simmel, points out that conflict leads to a centralization of power within each group and motivates groups to seek allies. Collins proposed that the differences among stratified groups are due to the microinteractions of daily experience, which can occur along the two dimensions of vertical power and horizontal solidarity.-- From Randall Collins, 1992. Encyclopedia of Sociology, edited by Borgatta, E. , and Borgatta, M. Macmillen. Convergence Theory:
In contemporary sociological discourse, convergence
theory has a more specific connotation; it refers to the hypothesized link
between economic develpment and concomitant changes in social organizatuion,
class structure, demographic patterns, characteristics of the family, educationm
and the role of goverment inassuring basic social and economic security.
The core notion of convergence theory is that as nations achieve similar
levels of economic development they will become more alike in terms of
these(and other) aspects of social life. -- From Richard M. Coughlin, 1992.
Encyclopedia of Sociology, edited by Borgatta, E. , and Borgatta, M. Macmillen.
Dialectic: The notion in Hegelian philosophy that an idea, termed a thesis, takes on meaning only when it is related to its opposite or contradictory idea, called an antithesis. The interaction between the two ideas forms a new idea, termed a synthesis. -- From James W. Vander Zanden, 1990. Sociology the Core. McGrew-hill. Dialectic materialism: The notion in Marxist theory that development depends on the crash of contradictions and the creation of new, more advanced structures out these clashes. -- From James W. Vander Zanden, 1990. Sociology the Core. McGrew-hill. Dysfunctions:
The observed consequences that lessen the adaption
or adjustment of a system. -- From James W. Vander Zanden, 1990. Sociology
the Core. McGrew-hill.
Egocentric Network: An actor (sometimes called the "anchorage"), the actors with which it has relation, and the relations among those actors. This is somtimes refered to as a "personal network." -- From Emirbayer, Mustafa and Jeff Goodwin, 1994, Network Analysis, Culture, and the Problem of Agency, American Journal of Sociology 99 (6):1411-54. Executive:
Executive is term used to identify positions at
the top of organizations. The position usually included in this category
are presidents, chief executive officers, and vice presidents. Chief executives
determine and formulate policies and provide the overall direction of companies
or private and public sector organizations within the guidelines set up
by a board of directors or similar governing body and plan, direct, or
coordinate operational activities at the highest level of management with
the help of subordinate executives and staff managers.
Function:
The observed consequences that permit the apatation
or adjustment of a system. -- From James W. Vander Zanden, 1990. Sociology
the Core. McGrew-hill.
Job:
A job(or, work role) is a specific set of technical
and social activities located within a specific context. -- From Rothman,
R. A. 1987. Working Sociological Perspectives. Prentice-Hall.
Latent Fuction:
Consequences that are neither intended nor recognized
by the participants in a system. -- From James W. Vander Zanden, 1990.
Sociology the Core. McGrew-hill.
Manager: manager is term used to identify positions below "executive" positions having organization-wide responsibilities, and above "supervisory" positions, which are concerned with the completion of specific tasks at the production level. upper levels of management may extend to vice-presidents in functional areas, middle ranges of management include departmental directors and plant managers, and the lower levels often have vague titles such as "assistant manager", or "specialist." -- From Rothman, R. A. 1987. Working Sociological Perspectives. Prentice-Hall. Manifest Fuction:
Consequences that are intended or recognized by
the participants in a system. -- From James W. Vander Zanden, 1990. Sociology
the Core. McGrew-hill.
Master Status: A key or core status that carries primary weight in a person's interactions and relationships with others. -- From James W. Vander Zanden, 1990. Sociology the Core. McGrew-hill. Mechanical Solidarity:
A form of social intergration that characterized early societies in which
a sense of oneness was derived from the fact that all the members of the
society engaged in essentially similar tasks.-- From James W. Vander Zanden,
1990. Sociology the Core. McGrew-hill.
Occupation: Engagement on a regular basis ina part or the whole of a range of work tasks which are identified under a particular heading or title by both those carrying out these tasks and a wider public. -- Watson. T. J. 1980. Sociology, Work and Industry. Routledge & Kegan Paul. Occupational Structure: An organization of occupations into categories for some purpose, including labels and connections of relationships between labels. Occupational Analysis: The tools and methods used to describe and label work, positions, jobs, and occupations. Occupational Classification: This term has two general meanings: (1) the act of classifying positions, jobs, or occupations into an existing occupational category system and (2) the set of occupational categories in an occupational category system. Occupational Role: Occupational role focuses on the common features of all jobs wiht the same general title, such as sales, clerk, nurse, plumber, medical technician. : . Organic Solidarity:
A form of social intergration that characterizes
modern societies. A society is held togerter by the interdependence fostered
by the differences among people. -- From James W. Vander Zanden, 1990.
Sociology the Core. McGrew-hill.
Power: the ability to control the behavior of others, even against their will. -- From James W. Vander Zanden, 1990. Sociology the Core. McGrew-hill. Professional:
The term professional has several common meanings.
It is frequently used to differentiate between those who earn income from
an activity and those work without any direct monetary remuneration. This
distinction seperates the paid professional athlete from the unpaid amateur.
The label professional is employed by the goverment in laborforce analyses
to identify occupations requiring specialized knowledge, skill, or experience.
A third use of the term is as a form of self-identification used by certain
occuaptions seeking to create a positive public image. Truck drivers, realtors,
janitors, and domestics have all amde claims to the title of "professional."
Right: The actions that we can legitimately insist that others perform. -- From James W. Vander Zanden, 1990. Sociology the Core. McGrew-hill. Role: Expectations (rights and duties) that define the behavior people view as appropriate and inappropriate for the occupant of a status. -- From James W. Vander Zanden, 1990. Sociology the Core. McGrew-hill. Role Conflict: Situation in which individuals are confronted with conflicting expectations stemming from their simultaneous occupancy of two or more statuses. -- From James W. Vander Zanden, 1990. Sociology the Core. McGrew-hill. Role Strain:
Finding the expectations of a single role incompatible,
so that one has difficulty performing the role. -- From James W. Vander
Zanden, 1990. Sociology the Core. McGrew-hill.
Skill Level: This term was used as classification criteria of occupations. Skill level is defined generally as the amont and type of education and training required to enter and perform the duties of an occupation. Skill Type: This term was used as classification criteria of occupations with 'skill level'. Skill Type is defined generally as the type of work performed. Social circle: A group in which each actor is directly and strongly linked to most(e.g., 80%), but not necessarily all, others. This is sometimes called a "social cluster."-- From Emirbayer, Mustafa and Jeff Goodwin, 1994, Network Analysis, Culture, and the Problem of Agency, American Journal of Sociology 99 (6):1411-54. Social Cohesion: The presence of a dense network of strong ties among a set of actors. -- From Emirbayer, Mustafa and Jeff Goodwin, 1994, Network Analysis, Culture, and the Problem of Agency, American Journal of Sociology 99 (6):1411-54. Social Darwinism: The application of evolutionary notions and concept of the survival of the fittest to the social world. -- From James W. Vander Zanden, 1990. Sociology the Core. McGrew-hill. Social Dynamics: Those aspects of social life that have to do with social change and that pattern institutional development. -- From James W. Vander Zanden, 1990. Sociology the Core. McGrew-hill. Social Facts: those aspects of social life that cannot be explained in terms of the biological of mental characteristics of the individual. People experience the social fact as external to themselves in the sense that ti has an independent reality and forms a part of their objective environment. -- From James W. Vander Zanden, 1990. Sociology the Core. McGrew-hill. Sociological Imagination: The ability to see our private experiences and personal difficulties as entwined with the structural arrangements of our society and the historical times in which we live. -- From James W. Vander Zanden, 1990. Sociology the Core. McGrew-hill. Status: A position within a group or society; a location in a social structure. -- From James W. Vander Zanden, 1990. Sociology the Core. McGrew-hill. Strength of ties: The relative frequency, duration, emotional intensity, reciprocal exchange, and so on which characterize a given tie or set of ties. -- From Emirbayer, Mustafa and Jeff Goodwin, 1994, Network Analysis, Culture, and the Problem of Agency, American Journal of Sociology 99 (6):1411-54. Structural hole: The absence of a relation among actors in a network. -- From Emirbayer, Mustafa and Jeff Goodwin, 1994, Network Analysis, Culture, and the Problem of Agency, American Journal of Sociology 99 (6):1411-54. Superstructure:
The notion in Karl Marx that political ideologies, religion, family organization,
education, and government constitute a level of social life that is primarily
shaped by the economic institution. -- From James W. Vander Zanden, 1990.
Sociology the Core. McGrew-hill.
Vendor: vendor is a general term referring to any of a member of organizations or groups that supply raw materials, products, or components to members of an occupation. -- From Rothman, R. A. 1987. Working Sociological Perspectives. Prentice-Hall. Verstehen:
An approach to the study of social life developed by Max Weber in which
sociologists mentally attempt to place themselves in the shoes of other
people and identify what they think and hoq they feel. -- From James W.
Vander Zanden, 1990. Sociology the Core. McGrew-hill.
Work: Human activity that is goal directed, purposive, or instrumental and creates value to society. The processes by which humans transform resources into outputs. Following Rothman, Work is often thought of as a set of physical and mental activity and such manual and mental operations may be called the technical dimensions of work type. but a focus exclucsively upon the technical dimensions of jobs ignores their history and isolates them from the sociocultural, economic, and political environments. To gain acceptance, people must be willing and able to learn working group norms and values. These may be referred to as the sociological dimension of work roles. -- From Rothman, R. A. 1987. Working Sociological Perspectives. Prentice-Hall. Work Structure:
Patterns of work activity that are multiply determined
by social, economic, political, technological, and cultural processes.
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